GIFT  OF 
Class   of   1900 


JOSEPH  MAZZINI 


AN   ESSAY   BY 

JOSEPH  HUTCHINSON 


READ   AT  THE  APRIL    (1909)    MEETING  OF 
THE  CHIT  CHAT  CLUB  OF  SAN  FRANCISCO 


THE  MURDOCK  PRESS 


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JOSEPH  MAZZINI 

T  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
Common  Man,  having  fought  his  way  up 
through  the  ascending  stages  of  slave,  serf, 
and  hireling,  had  reached  the  very  threshold 
of  freedom,  when,  suddenly,  in  the  glare  of 
the  red  lights  of  the  French  Revolution,  old  man  Autoc- 
racy and  old  woman  Papacy,  both  galvanized  into  a 
semblance  of  new  life,  re-entered,  led  by  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  the  chief  executioner  and  spy  of  the  associated 
villanies.  Lights  extinguished.  A  slow  and  sad  chorus 
sings,  "Man  shall  not  live  by  RIGHTS  alone."  Curtain. 

A  group  of  philosophers,  some  leaving,  some  assem- 
bling, comment  on  the  progress  of  the  plot.  J.  Bentham, 
"the  most  philanthropic  of  the  philanthropic,"  gathers  up 
his  notes  on  "the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest 
number,"  and  stamps  out,  leaving  a  cure  for  every  evil 
except  his  own  philosophy.  Henry  Maine  echoes :  "Is 
not  the  happiness  of  one  Brahmin  worth  at  least  the 
happiness  of  twenty  ordinary  men?"  Every  government 
is  "a  standing  conspiracy  to  rob  and  bamboozle,"  cries 
Cobden,  "the  bagman  with  a  cheap  calico  millennium." 
"The  terrors  of  the  majority,"  "the  evils  of  collective 
mediocrity,"  "government  by  roughs,  clowns,  and  the 
common  herd,"  growls  John  Stuart  Mill,  the  "aristocrat 
of  democracy,"  and  adds :  "To  serve  the  State,  beard  the 
crowd,"  "Democracy  is  a  temple  of  rotten  bricks."  And 
we  hear  the  explosive  objurgations  of  Carlyle  about 
"horsehood  and  doghood  suffrage,"  "twenty-seven  million 

' 801885 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

feioi  the  gallery,  mostly  fools,"  "a  rotten,  multitudin- 
canaille/':  "electing  masters  of  tongue-fence  to  the 
Palaver,  and  ballot-boxing  on  the  graves  of 
heroic  ancestors,"  and,  finally,  "is  Quashee  nigger  equal 
to  Socrates  or  Shakespeare;  is  Judas  Iscariot  equal  to 
Jesus  Christ;  is  Bedlam  or  Gehenna  equal  to  the  New 
Jerusalem?"  And  Bismarck  takes  up  the  theme  and 
snorts,  "For  all  purposes  of  good  government  the  ballot- 
box  is  as  useful  as  a  dice-box."  And  the  theater  is 
temporarily  closed  for  repairs. 

When  the  powers  had  caged  Napoleon,  they  assembled 
with  their  pastry-cooks  and  painted  women  at  Vienna, 
where  they  danced,  dallied,  and  devoured  while  Prince 
Metternich,  in  the  name  of  the  Most  Holy  and  Indi- 
visible Trinity,  and  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  divided 
the  spoils. 

As  to  Italy,  Metternich  not  only  destroyed  what  little 
freedom  and  improved  administration  Napoleon  had 
vouchsafed  her,  but,  ignoring  geography,  history,  race 
prejudice,  and  humanity,  made  arbitrary  partition  of  that 
unhappy  country.  The  pope  and  the  unspeakable  Bour- 
bons were  restored.  Austria  herself  took  the  rich  Lom- 
bardy  region;  Austrian  puppets,  Tuscany,  Parma,  and 
Modena;  and,  against  the  passionate  protest  of  Genoa, 
she  was  attached  to  Piedmont. 

The  divine  right  of  kings  implies  the  perpetual  inca- 
pacity of  the  Common  Man,  who  must  be  kept  ignorant, 
superstitious,  vicious,  cowed.  Hence  only  clerical  schools ; 
meetings,  periodicals,  organizations,  inventions,  modern 
improvements,  arms,  forbidden;  brutal,  semi-savage  mer- 
cenary standing  armies;  universal  espionage;  barbarous 
imprisonment,  devilish  tortures,  exile,  death  visited  quick- 
ly upon  symptoms  of  independence;  multiplied  taxes, 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

monopolies,  and  confiscations;  corrupt  courts,-  ^ncL  offic- 
ials; and  vice,  invited  by  the  conditions',  Stimulated  ,  by 


the  practice  of  the  ruling  classes  and  the 
precept  of  the  church  itself.  Such  was  the  benign  rule 
of  the  Holy  Alliance  in  Italy.  Gladstone,  outraged  by 
what  he  himself  saw  in  Naples,  branded  the  Bourbon 
administration  there  as  "the  negation  of  God  erected  into 
a  form  of  government."  Metternich's  whole  programme 
might  be  described  as  the  "negation  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments erected  into  an  administrative  policy." 

The  part  which  Rome  played  in  this  unholy  combina- 
tion was  unique  and  in  every  sense  the  worst  of  all.  She 
distinguished  herself  from  France,  Austria,  and  their 
lesser  co-brigands,  Spain  and  Naples,  by  adding  to  their 
secular  crimes  the  unpardonable  sin  of  commercial  traffic 
in  the  highest  and  holiest  things.  Roma  !  Wealth,  mag- 
nificence, and  power  are  in  that  magic  word,  her  solemn 
ruins  seven  cities  deep  upon  her  seven  hills.  Once  secular 
mistress  of  the  world,  then  empress  of  the  soul,  then  the 
queen  of  literature  and  the  arts.  "Rome,  the  wonderful," 
"The  sepulchre  of  empire,  the  shrine  of  art."  "O  Rome  ! 
my  country  !  City  of  the  soul."  To  countless  millions  of 
men  the  very  name  has  had  for  centuries,  and  has  to-day,  a 
mystic  and  symbolical  meaning,  significant  of  the  noblest 
longings  of  the  human  spirit  —  the  insistent  intuitions  of 
unity,  of  divine  fatherhood  and  human  brotherhood,  of 
immortality,  of  duty,  patriotism,  self-sacrifice,  martyrdom, 
the  aspiration  after  worthiness,  the  transforming  instincts 
which  gather  about  the  cradle,  the  marriage  tie,  the  home, 
the  death-bed  and  the  grave.  The  very  letters  of  the 
word  are  holy  —  Roma!  —  Amor!  And  the  devout  sym- 
bolist thrills  with  emotion  to  read  in  them  —  Love  !  Love  ! 
—  the  final  essence  of  all  religion  ;  and  the  kneeling  mul- 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

tifcixlcs:- ten"  their  spiritual  eyes  towards  the  holy  city, 
their  -hearts  weHing  with  divine  adoration. 
•  :Tne  decadent  church  capitalized  this  symbol,  degraded 
it  into  a  superstition,  with  it  enslaved  the  human  mind  and 
obscured  the  soul,  and  bartered  with  tyrants  for  this 
suppressed  territory  in  exchange  for  bayonets.  It  was 
the  superstition  trust  with  its  head  office  in  Rome  and  its 
agencies  all  over  the  world,  combined  with  the  dominion 
trust  with  its  head  office  in  Vienna,  Paris,  or  Madrid, 
sometimes  even  in  Berlin,  and  its  excommunication  bureau 
in  Rome.  The  dominion  trust  protected  the  pope's  trade- 
mark "Roma"  by  keeping  him,  either  through  diplomacy 
or  war,  established  in  Rome, — as  a  papal  bull  roaring 
from  elsewhere  would  be  unheeded, — and  permitted  him 
to  use  the  trade-mark  in  its  own  territories,  conditioned 
on  his  so  using  it  there  as  to  promote  the  interests  of  the 
particular  dynasties  or  governments  favorable  to  him. 

It  is  in  condemnation  of  this  vilest  of  prostitutions, 
which  he  branded  as  fornication  with  the  princes  of  the 
world,  that  Dante  plants  Pope  Nicholas  III  upside  down 
in  a  red-hot  hole  among  simonists,  seducers,  hypocrites, 
thieves,  and  other  sinners  in  the  ardent  atmosphere  of  the 
eighth  circle  of  the  Inferno. 

Thus  frocked  hypocrisy,  upheld  by  the  armies  of  the 
continental  despots,  and  aided  by  the  diplomatic  con- 
nivance and  insular  indifference  of  Great  Britain,  put  the 
bodies  and  souls  of  the  people  under  a  worse  subjection 
than  before  Napoleon.  Wholesale  injustice,  outrage,  and 
cruelty  ensued.  From  the  noisome  dungeons  of  Naples 
to  the  torture  chambers  of  the  Austrian  Spielberg  the 
whole  country  became  a  prison.  And  there  soon  went  up 
from  all  Italy  a  "cry  of  anguish" — the  "grido  di  dolore." 
For  how  many  centuries  had  that  unhappy  land  given 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

forth  that  same  heart-rending  voice  ?  Should  this  cry  go 
forever  unheard? 

Although,  of  all  the  petty  governments  then  re-estab- 
lished in  Italy,  that  of  Piedmont  was  the  best,  it  could  not 
command  the  loyalty  of  the  Genoese,  those  freedom- 
loving  children  of  the  sea  with  a  thousand  years  of  inde- 
pendence and  republican  traditions  in  their  blood.  Was 
the  home  of  that  mighty  admiral,  Andrea  Doria,  con- 
queror of  Charles  V,  of  Francis  I,  of  the  Barbary  pirates 
and  the  Turk, — was  his  home  and  the  birthplace  of  the 
discoverer  of  a  new  world  to  be  the  subject  of  a  petty 
inland  prince  ?  The  response  of  the  whole  Genoese  people 
was  perpetual  conspiracy. 

One  afternoon  in  the  summer  of  1830,  a  body  of  Pied- 
montese  police  patrolling  Genoa  appeared  suddenly  at 
the  door  of  a  modest  stone  house  in  the  narrow  Via 
Lomellini,  and  arrested  a  man  who  was  just  emerging. 
He  was  in  mourning  and  of  clerical  aspect.  Immediately 
upon  and  in  the  confusion  of  the  arrest  and  of  the  accom- 
panying search  of  the  house,  he  rid  himself  undiscovered 
by  the  police  of  some  hand-cast  rifle  bullets,  a  sword 
stick  disguised  as  a  cane,  a  cypher  letter,  a  history  of 
the  three  days'  revolution  of  July,  1830,  in  Paris,  printed 
on  tri-colored  paper,  and  the  formula  of  the  oath  of  the 
second  rank  of  the  Carbonari — altogether,  the  pris- 
oner himself  says,  "matter  enough  for  three  condem- 
nations." 

On  what  accusation  was  this  arrest  based?  The  gov- 
ernor declined  to  answer,  but  remarked  that  the  prisoner 
was  "a  young  man  of  talent,  very  fond  of  solitary  walks 
by  night  and  habitually  silent  as  to  the  subject  of  his 
meditations,  and  that  the  government  was  not  fond  of 
young  men  of  talent,  the  subject  of  whose  musings  was 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

unknown  to  it,"  and  added,  "What  on  earth  has  he  at 
his  age  to  think  about?" 

After  confinement  for  some  days  in  the  barracks,  and 
numerous  unsuccessful  inquisitions,  he  was  suddenly 
roused  one  night,  carried  through  the  narrow  streets  to 
the  front  of  the  prison  of  San  Andrea,  and  there  thrust 
into  a  carriage.  Another  man,  wrapped  up  to  the  eyes, 
was  brought  from  the  prison  and  thrown  into  the  carriage 
with  him.  Two  musketeers  got  in  after  them,  and  they 
started  on  a  midnight  journey  westward  along  the  western 
Riviera,  twenty-six  miles  to  the  fortress  of  Savona. 

The  prisoner  thus  arrested  was  Joseph  Mazzini.  He  was 
born  in  Genoa  on  June  22,  1805,  a  few  days  after  Na- 
poleon entered  Genoa  as  its  lord.  His  father  was  a  well- 
to-do  and  charitable  physician,  a  professor  of  anatomy 
at  the  University  of  Genoa.  His  mother  was  a  Genoese, 
a  devoted  Roman  Catholic,  but  a  woman  of  strong  char- 
acter. Both  father  and  mother  were,  in  secret,  ardent 
democrats.  Four  influences,  he  says,  turned  his  boyish 
mind  into  the  same  direction :  his  parents'  universal  cour- 
tesy to  every  rank  in  life ;  the  reminiscences  of  the  French 
republican  wars  in  the  talk  at  home;  some  numbers  of 
an  old  Girondist  paper  which  his  father  kept  half  hidden, 
for  fear  of  the  police,  behind  his  medical  books ;  and  the 
classics,  through  which,  under  his  Latin  tutor,  a  sly  old 
priest,  he  learned  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome  and 
how  to  declaim  the  praises  of  Cato  and  the  Bruti. 

When  Mazzini  was  nine  years  old  Napoleon  was 
imprisoned  in  Elba.  When  he  was  ten  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  was  fought,  and  his  native  country  arbitrari- 
ly made  over  to  Piedmont;  when  he  was  sixteen  the 
Carbonari  rebellions  spread  through  Italy  and  were 
suppressed  with  true  Metternichian-Austrian  cruelty. 

8 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

Fugitives  flocked  to  Genoa  to  take  ship  to  foreign  lands. 
Mazzini,  walking  with  his  mother  on  the  mole  at  Genoa, 
saw  her  giving  money  to  some  of  these  wretched  victims, 
a  sight  affecting  him  almost  to  obsession.  It  was  then 
that  he  put  on  perpetual  mourning  for  his  country. 

As  a  young  boy,  Mazzini  attended  Roman  Catholic 
services  with  his  mother,  but  desisted  as  soon  as  he 
understood  their  meaning.  Intended  for  a  surgeon,  his 
fainting  the  first  time  he  stood  by  the  operating-table 
shattered  that  plan.  Then  he  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  practiced  for  a  while,  but  soon  had  only 
charity  cases.  His  undoubted  bent  was  toward  literature. 
Saturated  with  the  classics,  with  Dante,  Machiavelli,  the 
Bible,  Shakespeare,  Byron,  Goethe,  and  Schiller,  he 
learned  Ugo  Foscolo's  "Jacopo  Ortis"  by  heart;  and  in 
his  reading  lists  were  Scott,  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  Burns, 
Crabbe,  de  Vigny,  Victor  Hugo,  Alfieri,  Manzoni,  Guer- 
razzi,  Mickiewicz,  Hegel,  Kant,  Herder,  Giordano  Bruno, 
Vico,  Rosseau,  Voltaire,  Guizot,  and  Victor  Cousin. 

The  strict  censorship  prevented  the  exploitation  of 
political  subjects,  except  under  the  disguise  of  literary 
discussions.  Beginning  with  short  book  notices,  which 
soon  swelled  into  literary  essays,  published  first  in  a 
Genoese  commercial  paper  and  then  in  a  Leghorn  paper, 
both  of  which  were  soon  suppressed,  his  writings  were 
early  admitted  to  the  Florence  Antologia,  the  only  Italian 
review  of  any  European  standing, — a  literary  experience 
which  developed  rapidly  his  juvenile  style  into  that  firm, 
mature,  striking  form  of  expression,  marked  with  strong 
originality  of  thought,  which  made  him  one  of  the  great- 
est critics  of  the  century.  Just  before  his  arrest  he  had 
published  in  the  Antologia  three  articles  "On  the  His- 
torical Drama"  and  another  "On  a  European  Literature," 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

— both  political  and  patriotic  to  the  core.  "Oh,  Italians !" 
he  cries  in  one  of  them,  "it  is  well  to  defend  our  national 
honor  and  our  past  glories ;  but  national  honor  is  better 
guarded  by  overcoming  our  defects  than  by  boasting  of 
our  gifts,  and  the  best  safeguard  for  our  past  glories 
would  be  the  achievement  of  new."  Already  almost  at 
the  full  maturity  of  his  thought,  the  divine  fire  was  wait- 
ing to  descend. 

Arrived  at  the  fortress  of  Savona,  Mazzini  was  taken 
alone  into  a  dark  passage  where  the  governor  of  the 
fortress  preached  to  him  a  long  sermon  on  the  many 
nights  he  had  wasted  in  culpable  associations  and  meet- 
ings and  recommended  to  him  the  wholesome  quiet  he 
should  find  in  the  fortress.  "In  about  an  hour,"  writes 
Mazzini,  "I  was  confined  in  my  cell ;  it  was  at  the  top 
of  the  fortress  and  looked  upon  the  sea,  which  was  a 
comfort  to  me.  The  sea  and  sky,  the  symbols  of  the 
infinite,  and  excepting  the  Alps  the  sublimest  things  in 
nature,  were  before  me  whenever  I  approached  my  little 
grated  window.  The  earth  beneath  was  invisible  to  me; 
but  when  the  wind  blew  in  my  direction  I  could  hear  the 
voices  of  the  fishermen." 

If  the  holy  father  or  the  paternal  Ferdinand  of  Naples 
had  made  this  arrest,  Mazzini  would  have  been  flogged, 
tortured,  executed,  without  charge  or  trial,  and  a  bill 
sent  to  his  father  for  the  hangman's  rope  and  the  ice  used 
to  prevent  too  rapid  gangrening  of  his  stripes.  But 
Piedmont  had  some  formalities.  Charged  with  initiating 
a  member  into  the  second  degree  of  the  Carbonari,  Maz- 
zini demanded  proof,  and  the  government's  case,  based 
solely  upon  the  evidence  of  a  spy,  collapsed,  but  not  until 
his  imprisonment  had  lasted  nearly  six  months ;  and  the 
acquittal  was  coupled  with  the  alternative  of  sequestra- 

10 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

tion  or  banishment,  and  he  chose  the  latter.  Never  again 
did  he  set  foot  within  the  lines  of  Genoa  or,  in  fact,  upon 
the  soil  of  Italy,  except  as  a  marked  man,  a  price  often 
set  upon  his  head,  and  when,  forty-two  years  later,  in 
1872,  at  Pisa,  an  old  and  broken  man,  he  lay  down  and 
died,  it  was  in  disguise  and  under  an  assumed  name. 

When  Sergeant  Antonietti,  the  jailer  at  the  fortress 
of  Savona,  on  that  night  in  September,  1830,  shut  and 
locked  the  grated  door  on  Mazzini,  the  jailer  saw  through 
the  gratings  but  one  prisoner  in  that  little  four  by 
eight  cell.  He  saw  only  a  fragile  young  man  of  twenty- 
five,  of  medium  height,  dressed  in  black  Genoa  velvet, 
his  long,  curly,  flowing,  raven  hair  falling  upon  his 
shoulders,  his  graceful  mustachios  and  beard  vividly 
setting  off  the  clear,  pale  olive  complexion;  regular  and 
beautiful  features,  of  a  chiseled  delicacy,  which,  with 
his  very  youthful  look  and  sweetness  and  openness  of 
expression,  would  have  made  his  appearance  almost  fem- 
inine, if  it  had  not  been  for  his  noble  forehead,  that  firm- 
ness and  decision  of  his  mouth,  the  dark,  deep-set  eyes 
which  could  smile  as  only  Italian  eyes  can  smile,  but 
which  could  also  flash  astral  infinitudes  of  scorn.  (King, 
pp.  36-37;  Cesaresco,  pp.  59-60.)  And  the  kind-hearted 
Antonietti  felt  sorry  for  this  poor,  lonesome,  misguided 
boy. 

But  the  boy  was  not  alone.  The  grated  door  closed 
on  two  other  prisoners  of  similar  mien,  though  Antonietti 
saw  them  not.  One  was  the  saturnine  featured  genius  of 
the  Divine  Comedy,  he  whose  counsel  to  all  men  was, 
"Follow  thou  thy  star,  thou  shalt  not  fail  of  the  glorious 
haven/'  and  who,  tasting  in  exile  "the  salt  bread  of 
strangers,"  had  yet  exclaimed,  "Can  I  not  from  any  corner 
of  the  earth  behold  the  sun  and  stars?  Can  I  not  every- 

11 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

where  under  the  heavens  meditate  the  all-sweet  truths, 
except  I  first  make  myself  ignoble?"  And  at  the  side  of 
that  great  Italian,  who  was  neither  a  Catholic,  nor  a 
Guelph,  nor  a  Ghibelline,  but  a  Christian,  and,  above  all 
things,  a  man,  there  stood  the  mild,  firm  figure  of  that 
martyr  prophet  of  a  still  greater  race,  the  Nazarene  car- 
penter's son,  who  had  the  audacity  to  say  to  the  world, 
"He  that  loveth  father  or  mother  or  son  or  daughter 
more  than  me  is  not  worthy  of  me." 

Every  day  the  officer  of  the  guard  came  to  the  grating 
and  noted  his  prisoner.  He  counted  only  one.  Every 
evening  Antonietti  appeared  and  asked,  with  imperturbable 
gravity,  "Has  the  master  any  orders  to  give  ?"  To  which 
Mazzini,  with  equal  gravity,  invariably  replied,  "Yes,  a 
carriage  for  Genoa."  And  each  evening  Antonietti  count- 
ed only  one  prisoner  in  that  cell.  But  there  were  those 
three.  And,  at  the  end  of  a  month,  there  were  three 
more.  The  fourth  and  fifth  were  Tacitus  and  Byron, 
whom  the  new  governor  of  the  prison  unwittingly  passed 
in.  And  the  sixth  was  a  lucherino  or  greenfinch  that 
flew  in  every  day  through  the  window  gratings  and  shared 
Mazzini's  meals;  and  of  this  prison  companion  he  says, 
it  "was  a  little  bird  very  capable  of  attachment,  of  which 
I  was  exceedingly  fond." 

Here,  surely,  was  a  strange  company,  gathered  in  a 
little  cell  on  the  shore  of  the  Ligurian  Sea,  under  the 
maritime  Alps,  within  sound  of  the  fishermen's  voices, — 
Jesus  the  Jew,  Dante  the  Florentine,  Tacitus  the  Roman, 
Byron  the  Englishman,  who  was  not  good  enough  to  be 
buried  in  Westminster,  but  who  died  fighting  for  an  idea ; 
Mazzini  the  Genoese,  and  a  greenfinch, — plotting  against 
the  peace  of  kings  and  prelates.  He  found  indeed  the 
wholesome  quiet  the  old  governor  of  the  prison  had  rec- 

12 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

ommended — and  forever  after  Metternich  and  his  popes 
and  puppets  knew  no  rest.  Metternich,  accomplished  lib- 
ertine, past-master  in  the  arts  of  perfidy  and  chicane, 
product  of  the  wickedest  courts  of  Europe,  and  repre- 
senting in  his  own  bad  character  the  very  soul  and  body 
of  the  old  regime,  had  at  last  an  antagonist — a  man  of 
how  different  a  stamp! 

For  there  was  something  happened  in  that  cell  the  like 
of  which  does  not  often  happen  on  this  planet ;  but,  when 
it  does  happen,  the  whole  world  moves.  Mazzini  says  of 
Dante:  "Dante  was  of  those  who  recognize  no  law  but 
that  of  conscience  and  recur  for  aid  to  none  but  God." 
And  again,  "He  was  evidently  one  of  those  men  who  pass 
unscathed  and  erect  through  the  gravest  and  most  perilous 
junctures,  nor  ever  bow  the  knee  save  to  the  power  that 
works  within.  That  power  he  adored  with  a  trembling 
and  religious  fervor ;  he  had  gone  through  every  stage  of 
the  growth  of  the  idea,  from  the  moment  when  it  arises  for 
the  first  time  in  the  soul's  horizon,  down  to  the  time  when 
it  incarnates  itself  in  the  man,  takes  possession  of  all  his 
faculties,  and  cries  to  him,  'Thou  art  mine/ "  And 
Cesaresco  says  of  Mazzini :  "He  was  marked  for  a  man 
apart — whether  a  poet  or  an  apostle,  a  seer  or  a  saint,  it 
was  not  easy  to  decide,  yet  this  could  be  said  at  once,  if 
this  man  concentrated  all  his  being  on  a  single  point,  he 
would  wield  a  power,  call  it  what  you  will,  which  in  every 
age  has  worked  miracles  and  moved  mountains." 

When  Mazzini  entered  the  prison  of  Savona,  an  idea 
had  already  arisen  upon  his  soul's  horizon.  When  he  left, 
the  idea  was  incarnate  in  him,  possessed  all  his  faculties, 
cried  to  him,  "Thou  art  mine."  And  he  answered  with 
all  the  fervor  of  his  being,  "Lord,  thou  hast  said." 
"When  a  man,"  he  writes  to  a  friend,  "has  once  said  to 

13 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

himself  in  all  seriousness  of  thought  and  feeling,  I  believe 
in  liberty  and  country  and  humanity,  he  is  bound  to  fight 
for  liberty  and  country  and  humanity,  fight  while  life  lasts, 
fight  always,  fight  with  every  weapon,  face  all  from  death 
to  ridicule,  face  hatred  and  contempt,  work  on  because 
it  is  his  duty,  and  for  no  other  reason."  And  again :  "We 
have  made  the  cause  of  the  people  our  own,  we  have  vol- 
untarily taken  on  ourselves  the  sorrows  of  all  a  genera- 
tion, we  have  snatched  a  spark  from  the  eternal  God  and 
placed  ourselves  between  Him  and  the  people ;  we  have 
taken  on  ourselves  the  part  of  emancipator,  and  God  has 
accepted  us." 

It  was  in  this  spirit  that  Mazzini  left  the  prison  of 
Savona.  The  rest  of  his  life  is  the  story  of  an  exile  and 
fugitive.  He  gave  up  country,  home,  father,  mother, 
sisters,  marriage,  his  chosen  career,  comforts,  and  afflu- 
ence. He  became  a  wanderer  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
Driven  from  Italy  to  France,  from  France  to  Switzer- 
land, from  Switzerland  to  England,  suffering  constantly 
from  poverty  and  privation,  he  never  knew  rest  and 
comfort  again.  And  it  was  the  same  with  his  followers 
and  his  antagonists.  Thousands  went  to  their  death 
under  the  inspiration  of  his  words.  He  became  the 
chronic  Nemesis  of  the  governments  of  Europe.  He 
developed,  as  someone  has  said,  "that  cat-like  footfall" 
which  "never  betrayed  him  to  Europe,  while  he  passed 
untouched  through  her  highways  and  byways  as  often 
as  he  listed,  like  the  very  wraith  and  spirit  of  republican- 
ism that  he  was." 

Shortly  after  Mazzini's  release  from  Savona  appeared 
his  letter  to  Charles  Albert — King  See-saw — just  ascend- 
ing the  throne  of  Piedmont.  It  reminded  the  king,  in 
vivid  and  startling  language  of  his  early  leaning  toward 

14 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

liberalism,  pictured  to  him  the  dreadful  condition  of  the 
people  of  Italy,  exhorted  him  to  become  their  saviour, 
and  warned  him  that  his  failure  to  respond  would  be 
his  ruin.  "Blood  calls  for  blood,"  said  the  letter,  "and 
the  dagger  of  the  conspirator  is  never  so  terrible  as 
when  sharpened  on  the  tombstone  of  a  martyr." 

The  threat  of  the  letter,  "if  you  do  not  do  this,  others 
will,"  was  quickly  put  into  effect.  Mazzini's  flaming 
manifesto  appeared,  launching  "Young  Italy,"  the  new 
association  for  the  redemption  of  his  mother-land, 
which  he  had  conceived  in  his  Savona  cell.  It  was  the 
legitimate  successor  of  the  Carbonari  or  Charcoal  Burn- 
ers, but  Mazzini  did  not  repeat  the  defects  of  that 
unfortunate  organization.  As  Byron,  himself  a  mem- 
ber, lingering  for  inspiration  at  the  tomb  of  Dante  in 
Ravenna,  pointed  out,  the  Carbonari  lacked  any  exalted 
unifying  principle.  Mazzini  started  Young  Italy  upon 
the  lofty  plane  of  a  religious  crusade.  The  watchword 
was  "God  and  the  People."  The  colors  were  the  white, 
red,  and  green  worn  by  Beatrice  when  she  appeared 
to  Dante  in  Paradise.  On  one  side  of  the  banner  were 
the  words,  "Liberty,  Equality,  Humanity";  on  the 
other,  "Unity,  Independence."  And  its  impassioned 
oath  thrills  with  the  mighty  soul  of  the  man  who, 
single  handed,  was  going  up  against  the  entrenched 
powers  of  evil. 

Mazzini  was  the  first  to  take  that  oath.  Every  moment 
of  his  life  thereafter  was  devoted  to  performing  it.  He 
says:  "Many  of  those  who  swore  it  then,  or  since,  are 
now  courtiers,  busy  members  of  moderate  societies,  timid 
servants  of  the  Bonapartist  policy,  and  persecutors  or 
calumniators  of  their  former  brethren.  They  may  hate 
me  as  one  who  recalls  to  them  the  faith  they  swore  to 

15 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

and  betrayed,  but  they  cannot  quote  a  single  fact  showing 
that  I  have  ever  been  false  to  my  oath." 

This  epoch-making  movement  was  initiated  by  Mazzini 
in  hiding  in  Marseilles,  assisted  by  a  band  of  unknown 
exiles.  Their  flaming  messages  were  sent  into  Italy  by 
secret  means,  smuggled  in  bales  of  cotton,  hidden  in 
barrels  of  pitch,  tied  up  in  bundles  of  sausages,  conveyed 
by  friendly  sailors  or  other  travelers.  They  met  through- 
out Italy  and  elsewhere  with  instant  response — first  from 
the  upper  classes — the  literary  men,  lawyers,  physicians, 
priests — rapidly  spreading  down  among  and  throughout 
the  poorer  people.  In  a  very  brief  period  Young  Italy 
numbered  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  members ;  and 
the  whole  country  was  honeycombed  with  its  influence. 
From  the  Adriatic  to  the  Tyrrhenian,  revolution  was 
sown  shuttle-wise,  back  and  forth  across  the  peninsula. 

Metternich  saw  all  this  happening,  and  met  it  only 
with  more  brutal  suppression.  Revolution  after  rev- 
olution arose  and  was  put  down.  The  cry  of  anguish 
changed  to  a  roar  of  defiance.  With  blind  determination 
Metternich  repeated:  "His  Majesty,  the  Emperor,  will 
never  relinquish  any  of  his  Italian  dominions."  And 
awakening  Italy  thundered  back:  "Death  to  the  Bar- 
barian." The  five  great  days  of  Milan  came,  when 
Radetzky's  invincible  cohorts  were  ejected  by  the  frenzied 
populace.  And  Metternich,  on  a  cold  March  night,  ran 
for  his  life  from  Vienna,  and  did  not  stop  till  he  landed 
safe  in  London.  And  on  his  heels  went  the  Vicegerent 
of  the  Lord  on  earth,  sneaking  away  in  disguise  from 
Rome  to  Gaeta  to  join  the  select  company  of  scampering 
despots  and  more  particularly  to  accept  the  hospitality 
and  protection  of  the  vilest  of  them  all,  King  Bomba 
of  Naples.  And  the  scornful  words  of  Mazzini  pursued 

16 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

him.  "Our  followers,"  cried  Mazzini,  "die  for  their 
faith — you,  for  your  faith,  flee." 

Metternich  had  fled.  The  pope  had  fled.  Three  words 
were  sent  to  Mazzini, — "Roma,  Repubblica,  Venite."  And 
Mazzini  came. 

At  Rome  they  bestowed  upon  him  the  citizenship,  they 
elected  him  a  deputy,  and  when,  on  March  6,  1849,  he 
appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  Assembly,  he  was 
assigned  a  seat  beside  the  president.  The  applause,  the 
tears,  would  not  cease  until  he  rose  and  spoke  those 
thrilling  words :  "All  that  I  have  not  done  but  striven  to 
do  has  come  to  me  from  Rome.  After  the  Rome  which 
worked  by  the  victory  of  arms,  after  the  Rome  which 
worked  by  the  victory  of  words, — I  have  said  to  myself — 
there  will  come  the  Rome  which  shall  work  by  the  virtue 
of  example.  After  the  Rome  of  the  emperors,  after  the 
Rome  of  the  popes,  there  shall  come  the  Rome  of  the 
people.  The  Rome  of  the  people  has  come.  I  speak  to 
you  here  of  the  Rome  of  the  people.  Do  not  salute  me 
with  applause.  I  can  promise  you  nothing  from  me 
save  my  co-operation  in  all  that  you  shall  do  for  the 
good  of  Rome,  of  Italy,  of  humanity.  We  shall  have  to 
traverse  great  crises,  we  shall  have  to  fight  a  holy  war 
against  the  only  enemy  that  menaces  us;  we  will  fight 
it  and  we  will  win  it." 

And  so  the  spirit  of  the  boy  of  Genoa  and  the  pris- 
oner of  Savona  drove  out  Metternich,  the  head  of  the 
dominion  trust  and  his  puppet,  Pius,  the  head  of  the 
superstition  trust,  and  Mazzini,  the  fugitive,  came  from 
his  London  attic  and  was  made  dictator  of  the  eternal 
city  of  the  Caesars.  The  whole  people  gave  him  the 
allegiance  of  their  hearts,  their  honor,  their  fortunes,  and 
their  lives.  He  appealed  for  arms,  for  money ;  and  ladies 

17 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

who  heard  him  stripped  off  their  jewels  and  dropped 
them  from  the  gallery  to  the  president's  table.  He  called 
for  volunteers,  and  thousands  hurried  to  the  Roman 
standard.  Mazzini  knew  that,  humanly  speaking,  the  fight 
was  hopeless.  He  knew  that  against  the  utmost  maximum 
of  his  twenty  thousand  ill-armed,  undisciplined  men,  the 
French,  Spanish,  Neapolitans,  and  Austrians  would  mass 
their  unlimited  arms.  But  the  example  must  be  set  to  the 
world.  The  experiment  must  be  made  in  order  to  sow  the 
seed  of  ultimate  success.  And  the  experiment  was  made, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  noblest  passages  in  human  history. 
For  a  few  brief  months,  during  which  the  gallant  band  of 
Roman  patriots  held  out  against  the  overwhelming  and 
increasing  armies  of  the  powers,  the  government  of  Rome, 
in  spite  of  the  inexperience  of  its  administrators  and  the 
collapsed  condition  of  its  resources  due  to  decades  of 
papal  misgovernment,  was  so  excellent  as  to  excite  the 
admiration  of  the  statesmen  of  the  world — of  even  Palm- 
erston,  the  most  conservative  of  them  all.  Their  noble 
conduct  stands  out  in  striking  contrast  to  the  double- 
dealing,  truce-breaking  perfidy  of  the  French.  The  French 
emperor  had,  from  the  start,  intended  to  betray  them. 

The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  republic  was  a  costly 
victory  to  the  combined  despots.  When  Garibaldi,  with 
his  devoted  three  thousand,  left  Rome  for  their  wander- 
ings in  the  Italian  mountains,  and  Mazzini,  after  vainly 
exposing  himself  to  the  French  troops, — who  dared  not 
arrest  him, — as  well  as  to  the  danger  of  assassination, 
yielded  to  the  appeals  of  Margaret  Fuller  and  left  the 
eternal  city  of  his  hopes — and  the  French  troops  marched 
in  to  reinstate  the  abominations  of  papal  administration, — 
in  that  same  moment  of  apparent  victory  the  death  knell 
of  the  French  empire  was  sounded.  Mazzini,  beaten,  his 

18 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

hair  turned  white  in  a  few  weeks,  returned  to  his  London 
garret  to  find  the  universal  sympathies  centered  upon 
the  Italian  cause.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the  end.  From 
Mazzini's  humble  entrance  into  Rome  in  1849  to  Victor 
Emanuel's  triumphal  entry  in  1870,  was  but  a  step,  and 
the  one  was  the  direct  forerunner  of  the  other. 

When,  on  the  eve  of  Sedan,  the  pope — who,  with  fine 
sense  of  humor,  had  just  declared  himself  infallible — 
cried  out  for  help  even  to  Emperor  William,  Bismarck 
suppressed  the  message  until  the  battle  had  been  won. 
At  the  same  moment,  Napoleon,  clutching  at  the  last 
desperate  hope,  sent  his  signature  on  a  blank  sheet  to 
Victor  Emanuel  begging  him  to  write  his  own  condi- 
tions— if  he  would  only  come  to  his  aid.  "Too  late ;  too 
late,"  they  all  said.  Von  Moltke  marched  straight  to 
Paris ;  and  Victor  Emanuel  straight  to  Rome.  And  a  fine 
piece  of  retribution  was  complete. 

"Italy  is  an  oyster,"  ran  the  saying;  "Austria  will  get 
one  shell,  France  the  other,  the  House  of  Savoy  will 
eat  the  oyster."  "Italy  is  an  artichoke,  to  be  eaten  leaf 
by  leaf."  Mazzini  saw  both  sayings  come  true.  The 
House  of  Savoy  ate  the  oyster;  also  the  artichoke  leaf 
by  leaf,  first  Genoa,  then  Lombardy,  then  Modena, 
Parma,  and  Tuscany,  then  the  two  Sicilies,  then  Venice, 
then  Rome.  But  it  was  a  redeemed  House  of  Savoy, 
transformed  by  many  tribulations  into  the  spirit  of  humil- 
ity and  service,  which,  through  Cavour's  astute  diplomacy 
and  statesmanship,  rode  on  the  crest  of  united  Italy's 
triumph.  Victor  Emanuel  was  the  figurehead;  Cavour 
the  sturdy  engineer;  but  the  dynamic  forces  that  did 
the  work  and  transformed  what  Metternich  insolently 
called  a  "mere  geographical  expression"  into  a  living 
nation,  were  evoked  from  centuries  of  dissension  and 

19 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

organized  by  Mazzini.     And  modern  Italy,  united  and 
redeemed,  is  a  magnificent  monument  to  him. 

To  Italy,  the  blessings  of  union  have  been  incalculable ; 
uniform  systems  of  laws,  trade,  agriculture,  education; 
uniform  fiscal  and  political  administrations ;  schools  of 
uniform  grades  leading  up  to  universities ;  illiteracy,  ille- 
gitimacy, crime,  disease,  vice,  poverty,  beggary  —  vile 
legacies  of  the  Old  Regime — all  on  the  steady  and  rapid 
decrease;  the  slums  of  the  great  cities — cultivated  by 
the  despots  as  valuable  assets — now  turned  into  beautiful 
parks  or  respectable  residence  districts — miasmatic  cities 
drained  into  healthfulness ;  disease-breeding  country 
tracts  reclaimed  into  salubrity  and  productiveness;  water 
supplies  transformed  from  sure  avenues  of  death  to  the 
purest  in  the  world ;  markets,  both  foreign  and  domestic, 
created  and  developed ;  agricultural  products  quintupled ; 
modern  improvements  of  all  kinds  introduced  everywhere ; 
industries  and  manufactures  established  and  their  prod- 
ucts multiplied;  savings  bank  deposits  accumulating  to 
an  enormous  extent ;  better  still,  in  the  records  of  science, 
art,  and  literature  is  the  splendid  roll  of  modern  Italian 
names:  Lombroso,  Morcelli,  and  Ferri  in  psychology; 
Mosso  and  Golgi  in  medicine ;  Comparetti  and  D'Ancona 
in  scholarship;  Ferrari  in  sculpture;  Morelli  in  the  criti- 
cism of  art;  Vittorio  Fiorini  in  co-operative  scholarship; 
Giacomo  Boni  and  Ettore  Pais  in  archaeology ;  Benedetto 
Croce  in  philosophy;  Molmente,  Villari,  and  Ferrero  in 
history ;  Marconi  in  invention ;  in  literature,  Carducci  and 
Fogazzaro.  The  kinship  of  those  men  to  Mazzini  and 
the  close  relationship  of  effect  and  cause,  which  their 
work  bears  to  his,  is  shown  at  all  points,  many  of  them 
being  his  direct  disciples.  And  yet,  though  his  prophetic 
vision  saw  this  promised  land,  he  died,  notwithstanding 

20 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

his  patient  and  philosophic  mind,  with  a  deep  sense  of 
disappointment.  "Little  it  matters  to  me,"  said  he,  "that 
Italy,  a  territory  of  so  many  square  leagues,  eats  its  corn 
and  cabbages  cheaper;  little  I  care  for  Rome,  if  a  great 
European  initiative  is  not  to  issue  from  it.  What  I  do  care 
for  is  that  Italy  shall  be  great  and  good  and  moral  and 
virtuous,  that  she  comes  to  fulfill  a  mission  in  the  world." 

In  the  rapid  movement  of  his  quickly  changing  life, 
and  the  wide  range  and  versatility  of  his  writings — from 
"The  Theory  of  the  Dagger"  to  "The  Duties  of  Man," 
from  the  "Constitution  of  Switzerland"  to  "Rules  for 
Guerrilla  Warfare,"  from  the  "Philosophy  of  Music"  to 
his  fierce  invective  against  the  French  government, — 
there  is  a  confusing  diversity,  almost  inconsistency.  He 
is  a  symposium  of  paradoxes.  An  analytic  believer,  a 
synthetic  rebel,  a  non-conforming  unionist,  a  constructive 
critic,  a  conservative  radical,  a  utilitarian  idealist,  a  fight- 
ing non-resident,  an  uncompromising  opportunist,  an 
arch-conspirator  who  was  yet  the  greatest  prophet  of 
publicity,  a  lover  of  peace,  who  passionately  preached 
armed  intervention;  and  Carlyle  calls  him  "merciful  but 
fierce."  But,  in  the  midst  of  all  these  contradictions, 
there  is  one  reconciling  and  unifying  clue,  his  belief  in 
God  and  the  one,  far-off  divine  event.  Toward  that 
Alpha  Lyrae  of  the  soul  he  held  the  steady  course  of  his 
onward  moving  universe  forever  true. 

"God  and  the  People,"  the  watchword  of  Young  Italy, 
is  the  key  to  it  all.  Marching  with  Garibaldi's  Italian 
volunteers  in  Lombardy  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  Mazzini 
carried  a  banner  inscribed  with  those  words.  MacCunn 
says:  "It  was  the  flag  he  was  carrying  all  his  life;  in 
that  is  to  be  found  the  text  of  every  word  he  wrote." 
His  writings  are  an  "oratorio  in  politics." 

21 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

Every  son  of  man  has  the  nucleus  of  an  idealist  within 
him.  The  very  definition  of  a  man  is  a  being  with  a  will, 
which,  through  all  the  vicissitudes  of  existence,  forever 
faces  upwards,  and,  even  in  the  presence  of  the  worst 
disasters,  still  sets  itself  with  invincible  determination 
toward  better  things.  And,  when  this  religious  sense 
is  appealed  to  by  a  man  of  Mazzini's  mighty  personality 
and  character,  it  meets  with  instant  response  from  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men.  And  so  we  find  him  leading 
men  as  utterly  different  from  himself  and  from  one 
another  as  Gioberti,  author  of  the  "Primacy,"  Garibaldi 
— whose  greatest  exploits  were  inspired  and  sometimes 
directly  planned  by  Mazzini, — and  Crispi — all  of  them 
members  of  Young  Italy.  And  we  find  him  in  secret 
correspondence  and  consultation  with  Victor  Emanuel, 
Emperor  Napoleon,  Bismarck,  even  Cavour.  It  was  this 
which  gave  him  the  power  to  unite  Italy;  and  it  was 
this  which  disappointed  him  with  the  achievement.  To 
such  a  man  the  heights  surmounted  are  only  the  outlook 
to  the  higher  ranges  beyond. 

To  Mazzini  Young  Italy  was  but  the  stepping-stone 
to  Young  Switzerland,  Young  France,  Young  Germany, 
Young  Europe,  the  Young  World.  As  a  nation  cannot 
exist  half  slave  and  half  free ;  neither  can  a  world.  And 
that  is  a  truth  which  every  real  reformer  learns  at  the 
very  threshold. 

All  men  are  divided  into  two  classes,  those  who  listen 
to  the  inner  voice  and  those  who  heed  it  not,  the  believers 
and  unbelievers,  the  unbelievers  who  live  in  self,  sense 
and  time  alone,  and  the  believers  who  discern  "beneath  all 
the  welter  and  scramble  of  human  affairs  the  old,  eternal 
laws  that  live  forever,"  and  who  say  with  Carlyle,  "The 
universe  is  not  dead  and  demoniacal,  a  charnel  house  with 

22 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

spectres,  but  God-like  and  my  Father's."  But,  if  it  be 
my  Father's,  it  must  be  your  Father's,  and  his  Father's, 
and  their  Father's;  there  can  be  no  dualism  or  division 
in  that  conception.  Mazzini  says:  "The  religious  ques- 
tion pursues  me  like  a  remorse ;  it  is  the  only  one  of  any 
real  importance;  ...  on  the  day  that  democracy  shall 
elevate  itself  to  the  position  of  a  religious  party,  it  will 
carry  away  victory ;  and  not  before."  "When  all  men 
shall  commune  together  with  reverence  for  the  family 
and  respect  for  property,  through  education  and  the  exer- 
cise of  the  political  function  in  the  state — the  family  and 
property,  the  fatherland  and  humanity,  will  become  more 
holy  than  they  are  now."  In  short,  religion  is  essentially 
democratic ;  and  democracy  must  be  religious.  This  is  no 
new  or  original  truth.  It  was  already  old  when  the 
Psalmist  said:  "Where  there  is  no  vision  the  people 
perish."  Its  verity  is  written  indelibly  in  the  rise  and  fall 
of  nation  after  nation.  De  Tocqueville  recognized  it  when 
he  warned  the  greatest  as  well  as  the  most  reckless  of 
modern  democracies,  "That,  if  faith  be  wanting  in  man 
he  must  serve,  and  if  he  be  free  he  must  believe."  It  is 
true,  indeed,  but  men  forget  it.  Said  that  other  lofty 
political  mystic,  Sir  Harry  Vane,  as  he  stood  upon  the 
scaffold :  "The  people  of  England  have  been  long  asleep ; 
I  doubt  they  will  be  hungry  when  they  awake." 

Materialism  breeds  centralization ;  centralization,  tyran- 
ny ;  tyranny,  slavery ;  and  slavery  breeds  ignorance,  super- 
stition, vice,  disease,  crime,  and  corruption  in  both  tyrant 
and  slave.  Abdicate  your  domestic,  social,  civic,  or  relig- 
ious prerogatives  in  favor  of  pleasure,  wealth,  or  power ; 
leave  untrodden  your  personal  right  of  way  to  the 
Almighty  Creator  of  all  souls;  and  soon  your  boss  has 
become  a  king,  your  confessor  a  pope,  and  you  a  slave; 

23 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

and,  at  the  same  moment,  the  conscience  of  king,  pope, 
and  slave  is  gone. 

How  many  nations,  flushed  with  victory  in  some  long 
and  good  struggle,  have  sat  down  and  taken  stock  of 
their  domains,  their  resources,  their  institutions,  and  their 
great  men,  only  to  find  their  closets  full  of  skeletons  and 
serpents,  and  the  future  foreboding  greater  evils  than 
the  past  has  conquered !  That  is  true,  not  only  of  Italy, 
but  of  the  entire  world  to-day.  With  the  whole  world 
industrialized  and  materialized  to  the  core,  with  wealth 
increased  and  increasing  as  it  never  did  in  any  former 
century,  the  ideal  is  facing  to-day  a  more  Titanic  conflict 
than  in  all  the  past.  The  same  evil  forces  which  Metter- 
nich  combined  against  humanity  are  now  scarcely  dis- 
guised in  the  spirit  of  commercialism.  The  theory  that 
the  common  man  is  essentially  unfit  and  corrupt,  and 
that  therefore  it  is  not  only  not  wrong,  but  a  matter  of 
necessity,  that  he  should  be  kept  so,  is  the  essence  of 
modern  commercial  autocracy,  as  it  was  of  Metternich's 
school.  Hence  capital's  league  with  the  saloon,  the  gam- 
bling den,  and  the  tenderloin — a  lineal  descendant  of 
King  Bomba's  convenient  combination  with  the  ninety 
thousand  lazzaroni  of  Naples,  through  which  he  kept  the 
decent  minority  subjugated, — and  with  the  church.  Ex- 
communicate Cavour ;  then  excommunicate  the  priest  who 
dared  to  shrive  Cavour;  torture  to  death  the  priest  Ugo 
Bassi  for  joining  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi  in  the  defense 
of  Rome;  poison  liberal  cardinals  when  papal  elections 
are  pending;  condemn  modernism;  put  Fogazzaro's 
"Saint"  on  the  index;  suppress  the  Christian  democrats 
who  dare  to  substitute  good  works  for  authority;  let  the 
very  latest  threat  be  the  damnation  of  any  Catholic  ruler 
or  heir  apparent  so  impious  as  to  visit  the  King  of  Italy 

24 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

in  the  apostolic  palace  of  the  Quirinal.  Meanwhile,  let 
the  kissing  of  microbe-spreading  toes  and  the  kneeling 
ascent  of  the  sacred  stairs  go  on.  Point  still  with  hot 
indignation  at  the  fracture  made  forty  years  ago  by 
Victor  Emanuel's  cannon  in  the  side  of  the  cathedral  of 
St.  John  the  Lateran.  And  keep  the  body  of  Leo  XIII 
in  its  temporary  chapel  of  St.  Peter's  till  the  wind  blows 
gently  from  France.  Levy  unequal  toll  upon  all  the 
world;  discount  American  tribute  ninety  per  cent  and 
French  tribute  eighty  per  cent,  while  Italian  tribute  gets 
par  in  representation  in  a  college  of  clerical  politicians, 
through  which  the  holy  mother  church  commits  fornica- 
tion with  the  princes  of  finance,  absolves  the  plunderers 
of  American  cities,  and  prostitutes  herself  to  an  eternal 
intrigue  against  the  uplifting  of  humanity.  Have  a  con- 
tribution box  on  every  step  in  the  ascent  to  heaven. 
Preserve,  at  all  hazards,  the  monopoly  of  the  trade-mark. 
Nor  are  the  Protestant  denominations  guiltless  with,  to 
use  Mazzini's  telling  phrase,  "their  thousand  sects  swarm- 
ing on  the  corpse  of  faith." 

Against  this  new  holy  alliance  of  capital,  superstition 
and  crime  is  pitted  the  philosophy  of  Mazzini.  To  such 
an  alliance,  a  people  enthused  with  the  divine  idea  which 
took  possession  of  Mazzini  in  the  prison  at  Savona  cannot 
be  subject.  It  is  the  idea  of  both  Jesus  and  Dante;  the 
fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man,  all  chil- 
dren of  the  common  Father,  with  the  consequent  doctrine 
of  personal  holiness  and  universal  and  equal  justice ;  the 
necessity  of  united  aim  in  order  to  the  progress  of  the 
race,  and  that  that  aim  be  the  loftiest  ideal  that  the 
greatest  and  best  geniuses  have  conceived  and  the  noblest 
traditions  have  preserved  and  confirmed;  the  right  of 
each  individual  son  of  God  to  full  participation  in  the 

25 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

heritage  of  his  Father,  and  the  sacred  duty  of  each  indi- 
vidual son  of  God  to  devote  himself  to  the  utmost  limit 
of  self-sacrifice  to  realize  that  loftiest  ideal  for  himself, 
and  in  and  for  everyone  of  his  brother  men.  Can  a  man 
filled  with  that  spirit  become  a  slave? 

Union,  liberty,  independence,  nationality,  rights,  insti- 
tutions, associations,  all  are  mere  means  to  a  higher  and 
nobler  end — a  redeemed  fhumanity, — and  that  not  an  ab- 
straction but  an  inexorable  reality,  which  sees  in  every 
human  form — however  debased — the  making,  not  only  of 
a  "good  neighbor  and  an  honest  citizen,"  but  a  soul 
capable  of  the  highest  moral  and  spiritual  life,  and  will 
not  rest  until  all  the  forces  of  the  universe  have  com- 
bined to  realize  that  capacity.  And,  among  those  forces, 
the  greatest,  next  to  God  Himself,  is  the  associated  en- 
deavor, not  only  of  those  who,  by  God's  grace,  are  in 
the  lead — not  only  of  Carlyle's  "ambassadors  of  the  cos- 
mos/'— but  of  every  unit  among  the  rank  and  file,  who 
by  the  very  exercise  of  civic  duties, — which  in  Mazzini's 
system  are  also  essentially  moral  and  religious, — through 
no  matter  how  long  and  blundering  a  probation,  are  to 
come  out  at  last,  with  their  wrappings  and  encumbrances 
gone,  into  the  beauty  and  light  of  a  higher  and  still  higher 
life. 

What  is  any  institution  or  tradition  compared  with  the 
value  of  a  human  soul  ?  They  drove  a  shaft  down  through 
the  stratified  civilizations  of  the  Roman  Forum,  through 
mediaeval  Rome,  through  Rome  of  the  popes,  through  im- 
perial Rome,  through  Rome  of  the  kings,  through  Rome 
of  the  ancient  republic,  through  Rome  of  the  shepherds 
and  cowherds,  and  down  to  the  remnants  of  a  race 
unknown  to  history;  and  there,  among  the  immemorial 
dead,  in  a  wooden  box  they  found  what  mortal  part 

26 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

remains  of  a  little  child,  with  beads  on  her  tattered 
tunic  and  an  ivory  bracelet  on  her  withered  arm.  Perish 
your  dynasties  and  hierarchies,  your  palaces,  your  temples, 
your  cathedrals,  your  ceremonies  and  your  pageants,  your 
institutions,  systems,  and  creeds.  But  tell  me,  who  was 
that  little  girl,  what  was  her  name  and  the  name  of  her 
people,  wherefore  did  she  die?  What  father  and  mother 
stood  weeping  by  her  grave,  and  where  is  her  spirit  now  ? 

Mazzini  has  been  called  madman,  fanatic,  visionary, 
agitator,  disturber,  demagogue.  He  has  been  denounced 
as  an  assassin  and  abettor  of  assassins — a  slander  which 
Sir  James  Graham,  to  cover  the  outrage  of  the  unwar- 
rantable opening  of  Mazzini's  letters,  repeated — to  his 
sorrow, — for  the  whole  English  people  arose  in  wrath  and 
made  him  take  it  back.  Mazzini  was,  to  many  millions,  a 
monster ;  to  many  millions  more,  a  master,  prophet,  mar- 
tyr. To  Ferdinand  De  Lesseps — better  at  building  canals 
(in  Africa)  than  at  diplomacy — Mazzini  was  a  "modern 
Nero,  a  man  dangerous  to  society,  a  weaver  of  dark  and 
infernal  plots,  who  had" — let  the  whole  world  listen! — 
"frequent  relations  with  English  clergymen  and  Method- 
ists." To  Italians  to-day  he  is  their  great  political  saint. 

On  the  commanding  slopes  of  Staglieno,  above  the 
north  bank  of  the  Bisagno,  a  tomb  is  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  and  upon  its  massive  Greek  facade  is  the  name 
alone  of  the  man  who,  in  the  words  of  Carducci,  "sacri- 
ficed his  all,  who  loved  so  much,  who  pitied  so  many,  and 
who  hated  none."  At  its  entrance,  in  a  little  enclosure, 
is  the  grave  of  his  mother,  whose  church  he  discarded,  but 
whose  broad  human  sympathies  and  mother's  love  held  her 
forever  devoted  to  him.  Below  lies  the  Campo  Santo, 
with  its  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dead;  from 
beyond  it  comes  up  the  busy  hum  of  Genoa ;  beyond  that 

27 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

lies  the  sea ;  above  and  over  all  is  the  everlasting  sky ;  the 
slanting  sun  shines  through  the  acacias  and  ilex  trees; 
the  mellow  bell  of  the  chapel  sounds  the  warning  hour 
when  all  living  men  must  leave  this  vast  city  of  the  dead. 

In  the  center  of  the  Piazza  Corvetto  in  Genoa,  facing 
down  the  Via  Roma  toward  the  Gulf,  stands  a  splendid 
equestrian  bronze  of  Victor  Emanuel  II.  Turning  from 
it  to  the  right  and  looking  up  into  the  ascending  gardens 
of  the  Villetta  Dinegro,  one  is  startled  by  the  apparition 
of  a  tall,  white,  commanding  figure  of  a  man  in  marble, 
standing  firm  upon  the  summit  of  a  Doric  column,  his 
arms  folded,  a  scroll  in  his  hand,  his  head  erect  in  the 
attitude  of  indomitable  purpose,  his  countenance  alive 
with  profound  thought  and  emotion,  his  eyes  setting  even 
the  cold  stone  aflame.  He  faces  the  great  king  as  if  to 
challenge  him.  He  seems  to  say  to  the  equestrian  mon- 
arch, "I  was  imprisoned  and  exiled  for  a  United  Italy; 
and  in  you  was  that  hope  realized;  Viva  il  Re;  I  lived, 
suffered,  and  died  for  a  republican  Italy,  and  in  you  was 
that  hope  postponed,  but  not  destroyed;  God  and  the 
people  live  forever!"  In  this  statue  is  summed  up  the 
devotion  of  the  millions  of  Italians  who  owe  their  spirit- 
ual quickening  to  Joseph  Mazzini,  and  he  who  can  stand 
unmoved  before  it  has  either  rare  ignorance  or  an  ice- 
bound heart.  And  in  the  two  statues — the  king  dashing 
proudly  toward  the  sea,  doffing  his  hat  to  the  applauding 
multitudes,  the  memory  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  flash- 
ing in  his  eye,  and  the  prophet  challenging  the  king — 
is  symbolized  the  everlasting  conflict  between  the  thing 
accomplished  and  the  thing  that  is  to  be. 

The  greatness  of  the  old  republic  of  Genoa  was  found- 
ed on  the  ruins  of  Pisa.  The  Tuscan  hatred  of  the 
Genoese  was  embodied  in  the  saying:  "A  sea  without 

28 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

fish,  a  mountain  without  trees,  men  without  faith,  and 
women  without  shame."  The  immortal  poet  of  the 
divine  comedy,  moving  in  the  lowest  precincts  of  the 
ninth  circle  of  the  Inferno,  among  the  traitors  frozen  in 
those  forlorn  depths,  pauses  to  thus  apostrophize  the 
inhabitants  of  the  superb  city :  "O  Genoese !  Men  strange 
to  all  morality  and  full  of  all  corruption,  why  are  ye 
not  scattered  from  the  world?"  These  historical  and 
literary  amenities  reflect  the  division,  dissension,  and  dis- 
cord which  were  the  woe  and  ruin  of  Italy  five  hundred 
years  before  Mazzini,  and  which  his  own  inspired  apos- 
tolate  dispelled.  The  Tuscan  sneer,  "Men  without  faith," 
reflected  the  concentration  of  the  Genoese  people  on 
commerce  and  the  pursuit  of  gain.  Present  witness  to 
the  persistence  of  this  trait  is  in  the  bustling  harbor  filled 
with  the  steamers  of  all  nations,  the  rushing,  roaring, 
rattling  streets,  crowded  with  the  contending  votaries  of 
trade,  and  the  customs  officers  at  every  gate — a  tax  to 
get  in,  a  tax  to  get  out.  But  was  there  ever  such  a 
breeze  as  comes  in  from  the  soft  Tyrrhenian  Sea?  Did 
Dante  in  his  exile  ever  gaze  at  midnight  up  into  nobler 
hosts  of  heaven?  And,  though  he  called  them  men 
"strange  to  all  morality  and  full  of  corruption,"  yet  out 
of  this  Nazareth  came  Dante's  greatest  disciple,  of  whom 
it  is  truly  said,  "It  is  as  plain  now  that  he  was  the  greatest 
individual  moral  force  in  Europe  during  the  nineteenth 
century  as  that  the  world  has  scarcely  begun  to  draw 
from  him  the  benefits  which  he  has  to  bestow." 

This  monster  and  saint,  this  assassin  and  prophet, 
when  he  was  not  burrowing  into  books  in  the  British 
Museum,  or  beating  someone  at  chess  in  his  London 
club,  or  attending  his  night  school  for  Italian  waifs,  or 
addressing  mass  meetings  against  the  white  slave  traffic, 

29 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

or  some  other  evil,  spent  most  of  his  life  in  London  in  a 
little  room  about  as  big  as  his  cell  in  Savona,  standing 
up  writing  because — someone  suggested — his  chairs  and 
bed  were  always  covered  with  books  and  manuscripts; 
and  with  birds  sitting  on  his  shoulder  or  hopping  about 
him, — smoking  very  bad  black  Italian  cigars,  which  Will- 
iam Lloyd  Garrison  tried  to  persuade  him,  for  the  good 
of  his  soul,  to  abandon, — drank  sherry  with  his  coffee; 
and  had  such  other  human  weaknesses  as  an  almost  ador- 
ing love  of  perfumery  and  fine  writing-paper.  He  was 
ever  in  debt,  not  always  from  lack  of  income,  but  because 
he  could  not  resist  any  human  appeal.  And  he  shook 
hands  like  an  Englishman. 

As  the  curtain  rises  on  the  twentieth  century  series 
of  the  great  drama,  a  new  set  of  philosophers  sum  up 
the  progress  of  the  play.  Just  as  man  came  into  the 
consciousness  of  his  social  and  political  importance,  sci- 
ence appeared  to  demonstrate  how  low  his  origin  and 
how  insignificant  he  is  in  the  overwhelming  vastness  of 
the  universe.  God  is  a  chimera.  Heaven  is  a  mirage. 
The  soul  is  an  epi-phenomenon,  a  sort  of  fire-damp  flitting 
from  grave  to  grave.  Immortality  is  a  joke.  Morals  and 
ethics  are  this  month's  fashion  in  fig  leaves,  shoe  strings, 
and  spring  hats ;  marriage  is  a  temporary  convenience, 
of  doubtful  utility,  to  be  succeeded  by  polygamy  and  con- 
cubinage ;  property  has  become  to  one  school  everything, 
to  another  school  nothing.  Loyalty  to  state  or  nation 
has  been  replaced  by  the  anarchic  dissensions  of  classes. 
Genius  is  degeneracy.  Poetry  is  insanity.  Conscience  is 
a  hollow  echo  confined  to  the  dome  of  the  individual  skull. 
Mysticism,  intuitions,  idealism,  enthusiasm,  religion  are 
subjects  for  the  alienist  alone.  The  whole  world  looks 
for  its  future,  not  forward  and  upward,  but  backward 

30 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

and  down, — as  if  the  flower,  because  its  roots  are  in  the 
soil,  should  forget  its  dependence  on  the  air  and  sunlight. 

Against  this  black  picture  set  the  white  light  of  Maz- 
zini's  personality,  glowing  with  God  incarnate,  faith  in 
man,  the  soul,  immortality,  reverence  for  the  family,  the 
nation,  humanity,  his  gaze  fixed  upward  toward  ideals 
which  he  will  not  relinquish, — and  the  gloom  of  an  im- 
possible pessimism  is  dispelled.  The  science  which  at 
first  belittled  man  has  already  set  free  and  put  into  his 
hand  forces  which,  with  leaps  and  bounds,  bring  to  the 
front  again  his  invincible  soul.  The  immense  contrast 
between  his  low  origin  and  his  present  achievement  dem- 
onstrates the  dignity  of  a  being  whom  the  whole  crea- 
tion has  groaned  together  for  so  many  ages  to  perfect. 
Shall  the  eternal  consciousness  bring  him  so  far  upon 
the  road,  and  then  abandon  the  design?  Materialism 
blooms  again  into  idealism.  And,  from  looking  back- 
ward and  downward,  men  turn  their  glad  faces  to  seek 
inspiration  from  above.  Mazzini's  mysticism  has  blos- 
somed into  the  philosophy  of  men  like  Thomas  Hill  Green, 
to  whom  "the  ideals  which,  with  inexhaustible  vitality 
shape  themselves  in  finite  imaginations,  are  nothing  less 
than  attempts  to  give  form  and  a  body  to  that  infinite 
spirit  through  whose  indwelling  energy  the  generations 
of  mankind  are  swept  along  toward  the  realization  of 
ends  greater  than  they  know." 

The  spirit  of  modern  commercialism  and  materialism 
says  to  the  common  man,  as  Metternich  said  to  the 
Italians:  "His  Majesty,  the  Emperor,  will  not  relinquish 
any  of  his  dominions" ;  and  the  soul  of  the  common  man 
rouses  from  its  lethargy,  shakes  itself,  rises  under  the 
leadership  of  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  Dante,  Mazzini,  and  all 
their  glorious  company  of  men  who  lived  as  seeing  Him 

31 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

who  is  invisible,  and  thunders  back,  as  the  Italians  re- 
plied to  Metternich :  "Death  to  the  Barbarian." 

"And  God  saith,  If  ye  hear  it, 
This  weeping  of  the  Spirit 
For  the  world  which  ye  inherit, 
Do  /  not  hear  it  too? 
Arise,  and  to  your  stations, 
Ye  lighted,  living  nations! 
These  be  my  dark  foundations; 
To  raise  them  is  for  you." 


32 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

ON  THE  MONUMENT  ERECTED  TO  MAZZINI  AT 
GENOA 

Swinburne. 
Italia,  mother  of  the  souls  of  men, 

Mother  divine, 
Of  all  that  serv'd  thee  best  with  sword  or  pen, 

All  sons  of  thine, 
Thou  knowest  that  here  the  likeness  of  the  best 

Before  thee  stands: 
The  head  most  high,  the  heart  found  faithfulest, 

The  purest  hands. 

Above  the  fume  and  foam  of  time  that  flits, 

The  soul,  we  know, 
Now  sits  on  high  where  Alighieri  sits 

With  Angelo. 
Nor  his  own  heavenly  tongue  hath  heavenly  speech 

Enough  to  say 
What  this  man  was,  whose  praise  no  thought  may  reach, 

No  words  can  weigh. 

Since  man's  first  mother  brought  to  mortal  birth 

Her  first-born  son, 
Such  grace  befell  not  ever  man  on  earth 

As  crowns  this  One. 
Of  God  nor  man  was  ever  this  thing  said: 

That  he  could  give 
Life  back  to  her  who  gave  him,  that  his  dead 

Mother  might  live. 

But  this  man  found  his  mother  dead  and  slain, 

With  fast-seal'd  eyes, 
And  bade  the  dead  rise  up  and  live  again, 

And  she  did  rise: 
And  all  the  world  was  bright  with  her  through  him: 

But  dark  with  strife, 
Like  heaven's  own  sun  that  storming  clouds  bedim, 

Was  all  his  life. 

33 


JOSEPH     MAZZINI 

Life  and  the  clouds  are  vanish'd;  hate  and  fear 

Have  had  their  span 
Of  time  to  hurt  and  are  not:    He  is  here 

The  sunlike  man. 
City  superb,  that  hadst  Columbus  first 

For  sovereign  son, 
Be  prouder  that  thy  breast  hath  later  nurst 

This  mightier  One. 

Glory  be  his  forever,  while  this  land 

Lives  and  is  free, 
As  with  controlling  breath  and  sovereign  hand 

He  bade  her  be. 
Earth  shows  to  heaven  the  names  by  thousands  told 

That  crown  her  fame: 
But  highest  of  all  that  heaven  and  earth  behold 

Mazzini's  name. 


34 


[Preliminary  Announcement  of  the  Meeting] 

"Life  is  a  mission,  or  it  has  neither  value  nor  meaning."— Essay 
on  Renan. 


CHIT    CHAT    CLUB 

MONDAY,  APRIL  12,  1909—6:00  P.  M. 


AT  UNIVERSITY  CLUB  ROOMS 

1817  CALIFORNIA  STREET 
SAN   FRANCISCO 


SUBJECT 

"JOSEPH  MAZZINI" 

ESSAYIST  :  JOSEPH  HUTCHINSON 


"Men  of  great  genius  and  large  heart  sow  the  seeds  of  a  new 
degree  of  progress  in  the  world,  but  they  bear  fruit  only  after 
many  years,  and  through  the  labors  of  many  men."  —  Manifesto  of 
Young  Italy. 


"I  would  mingle  with  men  in  order  to  draw  strength  from  them.' 
— On  the  Writings  of  Thomas  Carlyle. 


THE    PRINCIPAL    EVENTS    IN    MAZZINFS    LIFE. 

1805.    Date  of  his  birth  (June  22). 

1826.  His  first  essay  (on  Dante)  published. 

1827.  Joins  the  Carbonari. 

1830.  Arrested  for  conspiracy. 

1831.  Acquitted  by  Turin  Senate;  founded  Young  Italy. 

1832.  Decreed  exiled  from  France. 

1833.  Projected  rising  in  Piedmont  suppressed. 

1834.  Abortive     expedition     from     Switzerland.       Young 

Europe. 

1836.  Exiled  from  Switzerland. 

1837.  Mazzini  arrives  in  London. 

1844.     Mazzini's  correspondence  violated  by  British  Gov- 
ernment. 

1848.  Insurrection.    Mazzini  in  Italy. 

1849.  Siege  of  Rome.     Mazzini  returns  to  London. 
1853.     Insurrection  in  Milan. 

1857.     Mazzini  in  Genoa. 

1859.    Editor  of  Pensiero  ed  Azione.     Italian  Kingdom 

founded. 
1865.    Elected  Deputy  by  Messina,  but  refused  to  take  oath 

of  allegiance. 

1869.  Expelled  from  Switzerland. 

1870.  Italian  troops  enter  Rome. 

1871.  Mazzini  in  Italy. 

1872.  Death  at  Pisa  (March  10). 


"In  ourselves,  rather  than  in  material  nature,  lie  the  true  source 
and  life  of  the  beautiful.  The  human  soul  is  the  sun  which  diffuses 
light  on  every  side,  investing  creation  with  its  lovely  hues  and  calling 
forth  the  poetic  element  that  lies  hidden  in  every  existing  thing." — 
On  the  Historical  Drama. 


"Music  is  the  perfume  of  the  universe." — Philosophy  of  Music. 

LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  WRITINGS  OF  MAZZINI 

ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR  PUBLICATION 

1829.  Of  an  European  Literature. 

1830.  On  the  Historical  Drama. 

1830.    On  Fatality  Considered  as  an  Element  of  the  Dra- 
matic Art. 

1833.    The  Philosophy  of  Music. 
1835.     Faith  and  the  Future. 

1837.  On  Italian  Literature  since  1830. 

1838.  On  Paul  Sarpi. 

1838.  On  the  Poems  of  Victor  Hugo. 

1839.  Lamennais. 
1839.  George  Sand. 
1839.  Byron  and  Goethe. 

1839.    The  Poems  of  Lamartine. 

1843.    On  the  Genius  and  Tendency  of  the  Writings  of 
Carlyle. 

1843.  On  Carlyle's  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

1844.  On  the  Minor  Works  of  Dante. 

1844.  Italy,    Austria,    and    the    Pope    (Letter   to    Sir    J. 

Graham). 

1844.  Duties  of  Man  (first  part). 

1847.  Thoughts  upon  Democracy  in  Europe. 

1849.  The  Holy  Alliance  of  the  Peoples. 

1850.  From  the  Pope  to  the  Council. 
1850.  On  the  Encyclical  of  Pius  IX. 
1850.  Royalty  and  Republicanism  in  Italy. 
1852.  Europe:  Its  Conditions  and  Prospects. 

1855.  Two  Letters  on  the  Crimean  War. 

1856.  On  the  Theory  of  the  Dagger. 
1858.  Duties  of  Man  (second  part). 
1858.  Letter  to  Louis  Napoleon. 

1861.  The  Italian  Question  and  the  Republicans. 

1865.  Address  to  Pius  IX  on  His  Encyclical. 

1871.  The  War  and  the  Commune. 

1872.  The  Italian  School  of  Republicanism. 
1874.  M.  Renan  and  France. 


"The  artistic   formula   'Art   for   Art's  sake'   is   as   atheistic  as  the 
political  formula  'Each  for  himself.'  " — Preface  to  Volume  II. 


"The  temple  of  the  true  believer  is  not  the  chapel  of  a  sect."- 
Essay  on  Byron  and  Goethe. 


BOOKS  USED  BY  THE  ESSAYIST 

LIFE  AND  WRITINGS  OF  JOSEPH  MAZZINI,  AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL, 
POLITICAL,  CRITICAL  AND  LITERARY,  6  Volumes;  Lon- 
don, 1905. 

SELECTED  ESSAYS  OF  JOSEPH  MAZZINI,  Camelot  Series; 
London. 

ESSAYS  BY  MAZZINI,  translated  by  Thomas  Okey;  Lon- 
don, 1894. 

MAZZINI,  by  Bolton  King;  Temple  Series,  London,  1902. 

THE  DAWN  OF  ITALIAN  INDEPENDENCE,  by  Wm.  Roscoe 
Thayer;  Boston  and  New  York,  1893. 

ITALICA,  by  the  same;  Boston  and  New  York,  1908. 

BISMARCK  AND  CAVOUR,  by  the  same,  Atlantic  Monthly, 
March,  1909. 

THE  LIBERATION  OF  ITALY,  by  Countess  E.  Martinengo 
Cesaresco;  London,  1902. 

THE  UNION  OF  ITALY,  by  W.  J.  Stillman;  Cambridge,  1899. 
MODERN  ITALY,  by  Pietro  Orsi ;  New  York,  1907. 

THE  BUILDERS  OF  UNITED  ITALY,  by  Rupert  Sargent  Hol- 
land; New  York,  1908. 

ROMAN  HOLIDAYS  AND  OTHERS,  by  Wm.  Dean  Howells; 
New  York,  1908. 

Six  RADICAL  THINKERS,  by  John  MacCunn;  London,  1907. 


"I  ana  not  a  Christian.  I  belong  to  what  I  believe  to  be  a  still 
purer  and  higher  faith;  but  its  time  has  not  yet  come;  and  until 
that  day,  the  Christian  manifestation  remains  the  most  sacred  revela- 
tion of  the  ever-onward,  progressing  heart  of  mankind." — Letter  to 
an  English  Friend. 


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